Discussion
Grazing by livestock influences the productivity and stability of grassland ecosystems, which in turn generates feedback mechanisms on the carbon cycle. However, the factors underlying the complex changes of vegetation and soil as a result of grazing and their impact on the processes underlying carbon cycling remain poorly understood (Yuanet al. 2011; Hussain et al. 2015; Oram et al. 2023; Zaret et al. 2023). Our results from a 16-year long grazing intensity manipulation study in a desert steppe grassland show that grazers alter patterns of net ecosystem exchange primarily via their negative influence on the biomass of shrub and semi-shrub, which play a prominent role in ecosystem functions.